21.6.14 Putting Keyboard Events in Strings

In most of the places where strings are used, we conceptualize the string as containing text characters--the same kind of characters found in buffers or files. Occasionally Lisp programs use strings that conceptually contain keyboard characters; for example, they may be key sequences or keyboard macro definitions. However, storing keyboard characters in a string is a complex matter, for reasons of historical compatibility, and it is not always possible.

We recommend that new programs avoid dealing with these complexities by not storing keyboard events in strings. Here is how to do that:

• Use vectors instead of strings for key sequences, when you plan to use them for anything other than as arguments to lookup-key and define-key. For example, you can use read-key-sequence-vector instead of read-key-sequence, and this-command-keys-vector instead of this-command-keys.

• Use vectors to write key sequence constants containing meta characters, even when passing them directly to define-key.

• When you have to look at the contents of a key sequence that might be a string, use listify-key-sequence (see section 21.7.5 Miscellaneous Event Input Features) first, to convert it to a list.

The complexities stem from the modifier bits that keyboard input characters can include. Aside from the Meta modifier, none of these modifier bits can be included in a string, and the Meta modifier is allowed only in special cases.

The earliest GNU Emacs versions represented meta characters as codes in the range of 128 to 255. At that time, the basic character codes ranged from 0 to 127, so all keyboard character codes did fit in a string. Many Lisp programs used `\M-' in string constants to stand for meta characters, especially in arguments to define-key and similar functions, and key sequences and sequences of events were always represented as strings.

When we added support for larger basic character codes beyond 127, and additional modifier bits, we had to change the representation of meta characters. Now the flag that represents the Meta modifier in a character is 2**27 and such numbers cannot be included in a string.

To support programs with `\M-' in string constants, there are special rules for including certain meta characters in a string. Here are the rules for interpreting a string as a sequence of input characters:

• If the keyboard character value is in the range of 0 to 127, it can go in the string unchanged.

• The meta variants of those characters, with codes in the range of 2**27 to 2**27+127, can also go in the string, but you must change their numeric values. You must set the 2**7 bit instead of the 2**27 bit, resulting in a value between 128 and 255. Only a unibyte string can include these codes.

• Non-ASCII characters above 256 can be included in a multibyte string.

• Other keyboard character events cannot fit in a string. This includes keyboard events in the range of 128 to 255.

Functions such as read-key-sequence that construct strings of keyboard input characters follow these rules: they construct vectors instead of strings, when the events won't fit in a string.

When you use the read syntax `\M-' in a string, it produces a code in the range of 128 to 255--the same code that you get if you modify the corresponding keyboard event to put it in the string. Thus, meta events in strings work consistently regardless of how they get into the strings.

However, most programs would do well to avoid these issues by following the recommendations at the beginning of this section.